All of the above, and a bit of everything else. The root cause lies in a protocol that supports a complex market structure. When a charger can have multiple charging operators (roaming, etc., CPOs) and a car can have multiple drivers who may have multiple apps (or RFID tags, MPOs), the stage is set for problems.
In an ideal situation, the P&C protocol would be implemented so that all of the driver’s app information, essentially MPOs and card details, would be stored in the car’s driver profile. Now, as you approach a P&C-compatible charger or navigate to one, the car would display in the infotainment system, for example, that K-Lataus, Fortum, Mercedes, and Ionity apps are accepted at this charger, along with the respective operator prices. If the driver has all of these in their profile, the driver must make a selection in the infotainment system. If there is only one app or some priority (always the cheapest price per kWh), the selection can be automatic—meaning, for example, that K-Lataus is always used when available. In practice, car manufacturers do not build such a user interface, but instead state outright that P&C only works with our agreement, meaning, for example, Mercedes’ own charging agreement and prices. If the charger then does not work with the Mercedes app, there is no P&C.
Since ABC is practically a monopoly in the Finnish charging market and does not let other operators do the billing, such as car manufacturers’ charging apps, P&C hits a dead end right at the start. The EU could, of course, push P&C forward, but the charging market is moving slowly in parts of Europe anyway, and there is already plenty of talk about regulations in the air. The same story, with a few exceptions, applies to Autocharge as well.